The biography of any significant historical figure from past centuries is multifaceted and fascinating. Great artists, politicians, and writers were often not limited to a single talent but amazed their contemporaries with their diverse knowledge. Ivan Fyodorov, from Muscovy, is considered the first printer in Russia.
In his printing houses, he not only typeset texts but also engraved illustrations and created initials. Additionally, he was known as a cannon caster and inventor of a multi-barreled mortar. In his later years, Fyodorov visited several European countries, where he shared his developments and learned about innovations in typesetting and book printing.
Birth and Apprenticeship of Ivan Fyodorov
Ivan Fyodorov’s life is closely tied to the history of early printing in Russia. According to Soviet historian E. L. Nemirovsky, the future printer was born in 1510. Although his exact birthplace is unknown, he referred to himself as a “Moscovite,” indicating Moscow as his origin. The surname “Fyodorov” was not a family name in the modern sense. Ivan used various Latin, Greek, and Slavic names in his publications, but always referenced his father Fyodor and often Moscow as his place of birth.
The first reliable information about Fyodorov’s apprenticeship dates from between 1529 and 1532 when he studied at the Jagiellonian University in Krakow, where he likely received a broad and varied education. The university had three printing workshops, and it is believed that Fyodorov became acquainted with the craft there.
He completed his studies in 1532 with a bachelor’s degree, as recorded in the university’s promotional book. It was also noted that he lived in the university’s dormitory for the next two years, likely continuing to improve his knowledge of languages and other sciences.
Upon returning to Moscow, he was appointed as a deacon at the Church of Nicholas Gostunsky in the Kremlin. This church was known for its large collection of books and only accepted highly educated clerics. Here, Fyodorov met Metropolitan Macarius, who significantly influenced the establishment of printing houses in Russia.
The First Printing Houses in Moscow
The idea of creating a printing house occurred to Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible) in 1552, likely on the advice of Metropolitan Macarius. A printer named Hans MISSINGHEIM was brought from Denmark to organize the workshop, and stamps with Church Slavonic letters and a press were brought from Poland. Scholars believe that Fyodorov trained at this first printing house. During this period, several books without publication data were printed using rather crude fonts.
It was only in 1563 that Ivan the Terrible issued an order to establish a printing house, allocated funds from the treasury, and promised his patronage. Fyodorov and Pyotr Mstislavets headed the printing house. The first book printed here in 1564 was the “Apostle,” produced with extraordinary care for its time. Despite some imperfections, the book featured even lines, clear and not too deep impressions, and neatly executed initials, indicating significant experience and technical excellence. The “Apostle” was the first book in Russia to have publication data, precise dating, and a colophon with Fyodorov’s name.
The following year saw the release of another religious text, the “Horologion.” Early printing in Russia was primarily linked to church literature, as the clergy were the most literate. Printed books were more accurate than handwritten ones, as scribes often made errors. The church’s desire for corrected service books led to the establishment of the first printing houses in Russia.
owever, scribes opposed the innovations, seeing them as devaluing their painstaking work. Some historians believe that this discontent, which resulted in the burning of the printing house, prompted Fyodorov to move to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania at the tsar’s behest.
Zabludów and Lviv Printing Houses
In the Lithuanian town of Zabludów, Fyodorov received patronage from Hetman Hryhory Khodkevych. In 1568, the Zabludów printing house was established, producing only two significant works: the “Teacher’s Gospel” and the “Psalter with the Horologion.” After their publication in 1569, Poland and Lithuania were united. Although Khodkevych gifted Fyodorov a small estate in gratitude, he chose to move to Lviv.
Initially, things did not go well in Lviv. The local clergy and nobility showed little interest in book printing, but craftsmen provided loans and space for the new printing house. In 1574, a large edition of the “Apostle,” similar to the Moscow edition, was published. However, the book trade did not bring Fyodorov wealth, and the printing house was soon mortgaged to a moneylender.
Fyodorov’s son sold the remaining books while Fyodorov himself became the manager of the Derman Trinity Monastery. A new workshop was established there by request of the local magnate and prince Konstantyn Ostrozski, producing educational books such as the “Alphabet,” “Primer,” and “Greek-Russian Reading Book.” In 1581, the “Ostrog Bible,” the first Bible published in Church Slavonic, was released.
During this period, Fyodorov frequently visited European countries. During these trips, he attempted to raise funds for his Lviv printing house, managed by his son. He cast cannons for Stephen Báthory’s army, demonstrated his mortar invention in Vienna, and even corresponded with the Elector of Saxony, offering to equip his army with unique weapons. Unfortunately, these efforts did not yield significant profits. Fyodorov lived in Lviv until his death on December 5, 1583.
Interesting Facts
- An alternative theory suggests that Fyodorov may have been forced to leave Moscow due to his status as a member of the white clergy. He was married with several children, only one of whom, also named Ivan and referred to as “the elder,” is mentioned in history. It is believed that Fyodorov may have been widowed shortly before leaving Moscow and, according to religious canon, would have had to enter a monastery. To avoid this fate, he may have been compelled to leave the printing house.
- The continuation of the Moscow printing house. After Fyodorov’s departure, the printing house did not cease operations. His students, Nikifor Tarasyev and Andronik Nevezha, continued to publish church literature. In 1568, the “Educational Psalter” was published. However, the widespread adoption of printing occurred after 1589, when the patriarchate was established in Moscow, increasing the demand for well-printed Church Slavonic texts.
- Involvement in creating Uniate religious texts. It is believed that, at the request of Prince Konstantyn Ostrozski, Fyodorov visited Rome in the latter part of his life, where Greek-Catholic texts were being prepared for publication. These texts formed the basis for the Brest Union of 1596 and helped shape a new church tradition as an alternative to Orthodoxy.
- The lost grave of Ivan Fyodorov. Fyodorov was buried in the Monastery of Saint Onuphrius, but the exact location of his grave is unknown. The gravestone was made of soft sandstone and was lost by the late 19th century. However, descriptions of it, the inscription, and approximate location of the grave still exist.
- Remains walled up in the monastery. Over the centuries, the Monastery of Onuphrius came under the influence of the Uniate Church several times. During Soviet rule, a museum dedicated to Fyodorov was established there. During the restoration of the church, the remains of two men, approximately 70 and 30 years old, were found in the wall niches. The older individual had high levels of heavy metals in his tissues, suggesting his work with old inks. It is likely that these remains belong to Fyodorov and his elder son, who died shortly after his father and left no heirs.
In the 1990s, the Basilian monks regained control of the monastery, and the museum’s collection was moved to a less suitable building. The remains were reburied in approximate accordance with the original grave location. A memorial plaque dedicated to the printer now stands in the monastery.